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The River Morava and Its Trade

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The River Morava and Its Trade

By the River Morava, many of the goods of Servia and part of Bulgaria are carried down into the Danube, from where they are spread to many other regions. This river serves as an important route for trade and transport. Along its current flow agricultural products, wine, timber, and other local goods. In the opposite direction, traveling up the river, merchants bring salt and other commodities from Hungary, Austria, and neighboring countries. In this way, the Morava connects distant lands and supports the livelihood of many people who live along its banks Ephesus Day Tour.

A Great Battle Near the Morava

Not far from this river took place a great defeat of the Turks, led by the famous commander John Hunyadi. With only ten thousand horsemen, he boldly attacked the Turkish camp by moonlight. The surprise was complete. In this daring assault, thirty thousand Turks were slain, and four thousand were taken prisoner. After this great victory, Hunyadi returned safely to his own camp.

At that time, he left Uladislaus and George Despot of Servia in command. This battle remains one of the most remarkable examples of courage and strategy in the history of the region, and it shows how even a smaller force, if well led, can overcome a much larger enemy.

Arrival at Kruševac

After passing through these historic lands, we finally arrived at Halli Jahisar, called Kruševac in the Bulgarian tongue. It is a considerable town, both in size and importance. There stands a handsome church, notable for its two fair towers, which can be seen from a distance. The church gives clear proof that Christianity once flourished strongly in this area.

Through Hills and Forests

From Kruševac, we traveled the whole day through hills and thick woods. The road was long and sometimes tiring, but the natural scenery was varied and pleasing. Forests covered much of the land, and the hills rose and fell gently as we continued our journey Journey to Baditzna and Changing Customs.

At the end of the day, we reached Prupci, which some believe to be the ancient Villa Procopiam, and which the Turks call Urchup. This place lies quietly among the hills and appears modest, yet welcoming to travelers.

Hospitality of a Ragusan Merchant

We stayed in Prupci until the next day, lodging at the house of a Ragusan merchant. There we were well entertained and kindly treated. The hospitality we received was warm and sincere, and it offered a pleasant rest after the hardships of the road.

The local priest, who belonged to the Roman Church, spoke Latin, which is not commonly heard in these parts. When he learned that I possessed Latin books, he asked about them with great interest. I presented him with a small volume entitled Manuductio ad Coelum. He accepted it gratefully and, in return, gave me a beautifully worked, colored handkerchief, along with several small items typical of the region.

A Local Physician and His Practice

The town also had a physician, who possessed some knowledge of medicinal herbs and simple remedies. His method of practice was both humble and practical. Each morning, he would go into the marketplace and openly invite anyone in need of medical help to come to him. In this way, he made his services known to all, especially to the poor, who might otherwise lack access to care.

This simple approach reflected the character of the place—modest, direct, and guided by necessity rather than display.

Journey to Baditzna and Changing Customs

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Journey to Baditzna and Changing Customs

From there we traveled onward to Baditzna, where I first noticed a clear change in the dress of the women. Their clothing appeared unusual to me and quite different from what I had seen before. The women wore a kind of raised head covering, almost like a small canopy placed upon the head. This headpiece, as well as the forehead, was decorated with many kinds of coins, gathered from whatever money they could obtain, especially from strangers.

To contribute to this curious custom, we left behind a few small coins among them. I have seen Greek women who dressed in a similar way, though often more richly. Their head coverings were not raised so high, but their foreheads were covered with gold ducats and pearls, which gave them a splendid appearance. These ornaments were not only decorations, but also a sign of wealth and family pride Arrival at Leskovac.

Passing Through Jagodina

After leaving Baditzna, we continued our journey to Jagodina, which is pleasantly situated in a fair and fertile country. The surrounding land was green and well watered, making it suitable for farming and settlement. From Jagodina, we set forward again, and after a few hours of travel, we turned southward.

Not long after this turn, we saw, on the right side of the road, upon the slope of a hill, the tomb of a Turkish saint. The tomb was about four yards long, with a square covered structure standing beside it. When we reached this place, our Chiaus dismounted from his horse and performed his devotions in prayer. After this brief pause, we resumed our journey.

Through Woods and Caravan Routes

We then traveled through thick and extensive woods, which were known to be dangerous because of wolves and thieves. These forests were dark and quiet, and travelers were advised to pass through them with caution. We came to Chiflick, where there was a caravanserai, or lodging place for travelers. However, this place was not always considered safe Private Guided Ephesus Tours.

Because of this, we refreshed ourselves instead at a large farmhouse not far away. It belonged to a rich wine merchant from Belgrade, and there we found food, rest, and a sense of security. This stop was welcome after the long and tiring road.

Night Journey to the River Morava

From this place, we traveled by night toward the famous River Morava, also called Moschius, the chief river of this country. The Morava rises in the mountains from two streams: one called the Morava of Bulgaria, and the other the Morava of Serbia. After joining together, the river flows onward and finally enters the Danube at Zenderin, or Singidunum, opposite the Rascian shore.

We crossed the Morava at a place where the river was wide, deep, and fast-flowing. This crossing caused us some fear, and our Chiaus prayed loudly in Turkish, while the couriers repeated the prayer “Ora pro nobis”. Their voices filled the night air as the horses struggled against the current.

Reflections on the River Crossing

After we had safely crossed, the others were not pleased with me, because I had been more silent than the rest, yet was the first to reach the opposite shore. This crossing reminded me of the swift River Varus, on the border between Provence and Italy, which I once crossed on horseback with two men beside me, struggling against the strong current.

Such river crossings show both the dangers of travel and the courage required of those who journey through distant lands.

Introduction to the Bibliography

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Introduction to the Bibliography

This bibliography brings together important books and academic studies about Bulgarian history, politics, culture, literature, and society. The listed works were written by Bulgarian and foreign scholars and cover different periods, from medieval times to the modern Communist era. Together, they provide a broad and reliable foundation for understanding Bulgaria’s historical development and cultural identity.

The sources include historical surveys, political analyses, literary histories, and studies on religion, economics, and constitutional development. Many of these works were published in the first half of the twentieth century, when Bulgaria and the Balkans were the focus of strong international academic interest Istanbul Tours.

Works on Bulgarian History and Politics

Several books focus on Bulgaria’s political and constitutional history. Cyril Edwin Black’s The Establishment of Constitutional Government in Bulgaria (1944) is a key study of Bulgaria’s early democratic institutions. It explains how constitutional government was formed after liberation from Ottoman rule.

Books by L. A. Dellin and George Clenton Logio provide broad historical overviews of Bulgaria’s past and present. These works help readers understand the political changes Bulgaria experienced before and after World War II. Leo Pasvolsky’s Bulgaria’s Economic Position examines Bulgaria’s economic structure in the early twentieth century and is valuable for understanding later developments.

Other important historical works include A History of the First Bulgarian Empire by Stephen Runciman and A History of the Balkan Peninsula by Ferdinand Schevill and Wesley Gewehr. These books place Bulgaria within the wider Balkan and European historical context.

Studies on Communism and Church–State Relations

Several titles focus on Bulgaria under Communist rule and the situation behind the Iron Curtain. Vladimir Gsovski’s Church and State Behind the Iron Curtain and Reuben H. Markham’s Communists Crush Churches in Eastern Europe analyze the suppression of religious freedom under Communist regimes The Structure of the National Assembly.

The Free Europe Committee’s Satellite Agriculture in Crisis offers a detailed look at collectivized agriculture in Communist-controlled countries, including Bulgaria. These works are especially useful for understanding state control, ideological pressure, and the loss of traditional freedoms.

Bulgarian Literature and Cultural Studies

Bulgarian literature and culture are well represented in this bibliography. Clarence A. Manning and Roman Small-Stocki’s History of Modern Bulgarian Literature provides an overview of literary development from the National Revival to the modern period.

Several Bulgarian-language sources focus on writers and literary history. Bulgarski pisateli by Konstantinov, Minkov, and Velikov contains biographies and bibliographies of Bulgarian authors. Gueorgui Tsanev’s Pages from the History of Bulgarian Literature offers valuable insight into literary movements and key figures.

Vivian Pinto’s Bulgarian Prose and Verse introduces Bulgarian literary works to an English-speaking audience and highlights major authors and themes.

General Reference Works and Encyclopedias

Joseph S. Roucek’s Slavonic Encyclopaedia serves as a useful reference for Slavic history and culture, including Bulgaria. Philip E. Mosely’s academic article on post-war historiography analyzes how Bulgarian history was written and interpreted during different political periods.

This bibliography reflects the depth and diversity of scholarly work on Bulgaria. It includes historical research, political analysis, literary criticism, and cultural studies. Together, these sources help readers gain a clearer and more balanced understanding of Bulgaria’s past and present. They also show how Bulgarian history has been shaped by foreign rule, national revival, constitutional change, and Communist domination.

The Structure of the National Assembly

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The Structure of the National Assembly

Under the Communist Constitution, Bulgaria has only one legislative body, called the National Assembly. This is different from the system in the Soviet Union, where there are two houses in the legislature. The reason for this difference lies in the structure of the two states. Bulgaria is a unitary state, while the U.S.S.R. was a federal state made up of several republics.

Despite this structural difference, the role of the legislative body in both systems is very similar. In both Bulgaria and the Soviet Union, the National Assembly does not function as an independent institution. In theory, it represents the people and makes laws. In practice, it follows the decisions of the Communist Party without real debate or opposition A Brief Account of Early Travels in Southeastern Europe.

In both countries, the legislative body elects the collective head of state, known as the Presidium. This body formally represents the state at home and abroad. However, real power does not rest with the Presidium or the National Assembly. It belongs to the Communist Party leadership, which controls all state institutions.

The Gap Between Law and Reality

One of the most striking features of the Communist Constitution is the use of language that does not reflect real life. Many constitutional terms sound democratic and humane, but their real meaning is the opposite.

For example, “freedom of conscience” does not mean freedom of belief or opinion. In reality, it means the complete suppression of political opponents. Anyone who disagrees with the Communist ideology is treated as an enemy of the state and may face persecution.

The Meaning of “Rights” Under Communism

The “right to work” is another example of misleading terminology. Instead of giving people freedom to choose their profession, it means a compulsory obligation to work. Refusal to work or failure to meet production goals can lead to punishment. In extreme cases, this includes forced labor in prisons or labor camps Customized Guided Tour.

Similarly, “freedom of science” does not allow independent research or free thought. Scientists and scholars must strictly follow Marxist-Leninist ideology and obey the instructions of the Communist Party. Any research that contradicts official doctrine is forbidden.

The “right to education” is also limited. Non-Communist students or those from politically “unreliable” families are often expelled from schools and universities. Higher education is mainly reserved for students approved by the Party.

Inequality Before the Law

Although the Constitution declares “equality of all citizens before the law,” reality shows the opposite. High-ranking Communist Party members and state officials enjoy special material and moral privileges. They have better housing, better access to goods, and legal protection. Ordinary citizens, however, live in poverty and fear.

Another constitutional provision states that no one may be arrested or detained for more than 48 hours without a decision by judicial authorities. In practice, this rule is ignored. People may be arrested at any time by the police or security forces and held for long periods without trial. Some individuals simply disappear without explanation.

Violation of Personal Privacy

The Constitution also declares that “homes are inviolable.” In reality, police or Communist Party agents can enter homes at any time. They may search, seize property, and arrest occupants without proper legal procedures. Families can be deported to unknown locations with no warning.

Words Without Meaning

Under the Communist Constitution, words lose their real meaning. “Freedom” becomes oppression. “People’s democracy” becomes dictatorship. “National independence” becomes total dependence on the Soviet Union.

This contrast between constitutional promises and everyday reality reveals the true nature of the Communist legal and political system in Bulgaria. It is a system where law serves power, not justice, and where ideology replaces genuine rights and freedoms.

The Bulgarian National Struggle in Macedonia

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The Bulgarian National Struggle in Macedonia

Evidence of Bulgarian Religious Life

During the time of Ottoman rule, the Bulgarian people in Macedonia gave clear proof of their national identity through religion. In what is now Serbian Macedonia, there were 677 churches served by 299 priests. These were not only places of worship but also symbols of unity, testifying to the strong corporate consciousness of Bulgarians in religious matters. Even under Turkish control, the people worked hard to keep their faith alive in their own language and traditions Small Nations and Their Right to Freedom.

Bulgarian Education Under Ottoman Rule

Religion was not the only field where Bulgarians showed their unity. Education played a central role as well. In the same Serbian territory, there were 596 schools, staffed by 1,005 teachers, and attended by 36,000 students. This was not a small achievement under the difficult conditions of Ottoman rule. It showed that the people valued learning in their own language and were willing to support schools despite poverty and oppression.

In what later became Greek territory, similar evidence can be found. There were 300 churches with 299 priests, as well as 340 schools with 589 teachers and 19,000 students. These numbers prove that the Bulgarians were deeply rooted in both their religion and education throughout Macedonia.

Questions About Serbian and Greek Claims

If the population of Macedonia had really been Serbian or Greek, why did Serbia and Greece not provide for their religious and educational needs during Ottoman times? Why did they not build schools, train priests, or support the local people? The fact that Bulgarians themselves carried this burden is strong proof of their identity Turkey Sightseeing.

If the people had been satisfied with the Greek bishops and priests imposed on them by the Ottoman authorities, why did they fight so hard and so long to free themselves? Their struggle finally succeeded with the creation of the Bulgarian Exarchate, which gave them their own spiritual and educational independence.

The Revolutionary Movements

Another important fact is that all the revolutionary movements in Macedonia against Turkish rule were led by Bulgarians. Greeks and Serbs often opposed them. The Ilinden Uprising of 1903 ended in tragedy when thousands of Bulgarians were massacred by the Turks. It was not Greeks or Serbs who were killed, but Bulgarians.

The massacre left behind many orphans, and the Bulgarian Orphanage in Bitola was created to protect them. Yet when Serbia later took control, it closed the orphanage and left the children without support.

Greek Policies in Macedonia

The same pattern appeared in Greek Macedonia. If that land had truly been Greek, why did the Carnegie Commission report that the Greeks burned 160 Bulgarian villages and destroyed at least 16,000 Bulgarian homes? Such acts show that the Greeks saw the people as Bulgarians, not Greeks, and treated them as enemies.

If the wars against Turkey had truly been wars of liberation, why did the so-called liberators—Serbia and Greece—seize all the Bulgarian churches, expel the bishops and priests, and close the Bulgarian schools? Why was teaching in the Bulgarian language forbidden?

One striking example is the Bulgarian Gymnasium in Salonica, which had been a center of culture and learning for Southern Macedonia under Turkish rule. After the Greek takeover, it was closed, even though it had been one of the most important institutions for Bulgarian education.

The evidence from both religious and educational life clearly shows the Bulgarian character of Macedonia during Ottoman times. The people proved their unity through churches, schools, uprisings, and sacrifices. The closing of their institutions by Greeks and Serbs after liberation reveals not a natural union but a forced suppression of their identity. History, numbers, and the testimony of international observers all point to the same truth: the people of Macedonia were, and felt themselves to be, Bulgarians.

Small Nations and Their Right to Freedom

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Small Nations and Their Right to Freedom

Mr. Asquith’s View on Nationalities

According to Mr. Asquith, small nations should be valued and respected not only because of their size but because of three main qualities: history, life, and corporate consciousness. These are the true measures by which a people and their claim to land or independence should be judged.

The Meaning of History

When Mr. Asquith spoke of history, he did not mean the victories and conquests of powerful empires. If that were the case, then Rome would still have the right to rule most of Europe and Western Asia, simply because it once did. Instead, the history that matters is the history that has shaped the present desires, identity, and feelings of the people living in a land Sightseeing Turkey.

For example, some Serbian leaders have argued that Macedonia should belong to them because of the time of Tzar Dušan, who ruled in the 14th century. But even if we go further back, in 1018 the Bulgarian Tzar Samuel ruled over not only Macedonia but also much of present-day Serbia. Clearly, if history is taken too far back, it becomes confusing and contradictory.

The Time of Turkish Rule

For the people of the Balkans, the most important part of their shared history is the long centuries of Ottoman rule. The Turks came as conquerors and remained as oppressors. They often said that they came “in blood,” and in blood they were eventually driven out. The peoples who suffered under this oppression for centuries, and who finally freed themselves, gained the right to live on and govern the lands they reclaimed.

Life and Corporate Consciousness

Still, history alone is not enough. The true right to rule should be based on the wishes of the people living in each territory. This is where the ideas of life and corporate consciousness come in. Life refers to the vitality and energy of a nation, while corporate consciousness refers to the shared identity, traditions, and common purpose of its people Travel in Greece Comforts and Challenges.

The Bulgarian Example

During the last century, the Bulgarian people showed their strength of life and unity. They struggled for decades to free themselves from the religious and educational dominance of Greek bishops and priests. Their fight succeeded with the creation of the independent Bulgarian Church, headed by the Exarch.

The Slavic population in Macedonia fully joined in this struggle. By demanding religious and educational freedom, they proved their close connection to the Bulgarian nation and identity. This unity is clear evidence of their corporate consciousness, the shared belief that they belong to the same people and the same cause.

The rights of nations in the Balkans cannot be decided only by looking at the victories of kings or emperors from centuries ago. They must be judged by the living spirit of the people today—their shared struggles, their unity, and their desire for freedom. The Bulgarians, through their fight for independence in education and religion, gave strong proof of their vitality and national consciousness, and Macedonia was deeply part of that struggle.

Travel in Greece Comforts and Challenges

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Travel in Greece Comforts and Challenges

A Land for the Adventurous

Greece is not a country for those who expect luxury and comfort. The natural scenery is far more appealing than the hotels or public conveniences. While the climate is healthy and pleasant, visitors who come looking for modern comfort often find the facilities lacking. For travelers with a spirit of adventure, however, Greece offers rewards that far outweigh the inconveniences.

The Beauty of Nature

What Greece lacks in comfort, it makes up for in natural beauty. No other part of Europe has such variety of landscapes, richness of color, and striking views. The hillsides and valleys are filled with abundant foliage, bright flowers, and charming groves. In the countryside, the daily life of the people adds to the atmosphere. Their manners, customs, and traditional dress remain colorful and picturesque. Unlike many other parts of Europe, rural Greece has preserved its older ways of living, relatively untouched by the advances of modern civilization The Bulgarian National Struggle in Macedonia.

Accommodation and Food

Hotels in Athens

Athens is the only city where hotels are considered tolerable by international standards. Travelers who remain in the capital can find acceptable lodging, though not always of the highest quality.

Travel in the Interior

Those who wish to see the interior of the country must prepare carefully. It is advisable to carry personal provisions and bedding, as inns outside Athens are often primitive and unclean. Even short day trips into the countryside require planning. Visitors commonly bring lunch baskets with them, since the food available at small inns may not be safe or pleasant to eat.

Transportation in Greece

Roads and Railways

Railway services are still very limited in Greece, and travelers cannot rely on them to reach every site of interest. The roads, with some exceptions, are rough and difficult to travel. Improvements are being made, and in recent years it has become possible to reach certain historical centers by carriage. Only a few years ago, horseback or walking were the only options for exploring most of the country, similar to the experience of traveling in the Holy Land Private Turkey Tours.

Travel Conditions

Even today, visitors to many of Greece’s most important historical places must endure some discomfort. Dirt, poor smells, and basic conditions are common. Yet despite these challenges, the journey is worthwhile. The sense of history, the beauty of the landscapes, and the cultural richness of Greece more than compensate for the hardships.

The Rewards of the Journey

Traveling in Greece requires patience and endurance, but it offers experiences unlike anywhere else in Europe. For those willing to accept inconvenience, Greece provides a journey into the past, with scenery of extraordinary beauty and people whose traditions remain strong. The traveler may not find luxury, but they will find inspiration, history, and memories that last a lifetime.

King Michael’s First Reign

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King Michael’s First Reign

A Modern Reformer

Michael, a member of the Obrenovitch family, became King of Servia and proved to be a wise and progressive leader. He was known for being fair, forward-thinking, and liberal. He not only continued the reforms that had been started by Karageorge, the national hero, but also brought in many modern improvements that Servia had never seen before.

He worked hard to modernize the country. Michael built new roads and highways, which helped connect the towns and cities. He also constructed public buildings, such as schools, parks, an opera house, and an art gallery. These projects made the capital more beautiful and gave people access to culture and education. However, all these improvements required a lot of money Karageorge Builds a New Servia.

Peasant Resistance and a New King

The peasants, who made up the majority of the population and had strong political influence, were not happy. They saw these changes as “German ideas”—too foreign and expensive. Many felt that Michael was moving too far away from traditional ways. Because of this dissatisfaction, the people forced Michael to leave power.

To replace him, the people chose Alexander Karageorgovitch, the son of Karageorge, as their new king. Alexander had a humble background. He had served quietly in the Servian army and was known for being modest, calm, and reserved. Once he became king, Alexander continued Michael’s policies but did so in a less flashy and more practical way.

Years of Peace Under Alexander

Under King Alexander Karageorgovitch, Servia experienced peace and made good progress. He encouraged arts and industry, and life for ordinary people improved. But not everyone was satisfied. A group of political agitators, supported by the Obrenovitch family, began to cause trouble again. They eventually gained control of the Servian parliament.

This parliament demanded that Alexander step down. In his place, they called back old King Milos, who had been living in exile in Austria Guided Tours Sofia.

Milos Returns—And Fails Again

Milos ruled again for two years before his death. Sadly, he believed that the people had brought him back to support his earlier harsh and autocratic style of ruling. His second reign was even worse than his first, and many were relieved when his rule ended.

Michael’s Second Reign A Wiser Monarch

After Milos died, Michael returned to the throne. During his time in exile, he had traveled around Europe, learning how modern governments worked. He studied languages, politics, and the lives of other nations. This education and experience, combined with his natural intelligence, made him a much better leader than before.

In his second reign, Michael ruled with wisdom and caution. He became a safe and thoughtful king, respected by his people and admired by other nations. His return marked a period of renewed hope and stability in Servia’s history.

This period in Servian history shows the constant power struggle between the Karageorgovitch and Obrenovitch families, but also highlights the importance of wise leadership and public support. Both Michael and Alexander tried to bring progress, but their success depended not only on their ideas but on how ready the people were to accept change.

Karageorge Builds a New Servia

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Karageorge Builds a New Servia

After successfully driving out the Turks, Karageorge (Black George) established a liberal monarchy in Servia. He knew that he lacked formal education and experience, so he immediately focused on building a stronger, smarter nation. His first step was to create a free public school system in every province. He also established a university in Belgrade, the capital.

In addition to improving education, Karageorge brought important changes to Servia’s government. He set up courts of justice, reduced taxes, punished corruption, and fought against immoral behavior. He carefully organized the government into departments, acting with the wisdom of a skilled and experienced statesman Guided Sofia Tour.

A Leader Ahead of His Time

Although Karageorge had great vision and worked hard to improve his country, many of the people were not ready for such rapid change. He moved too fast for them to follow, and this caused problems. His enemies gathered against him, and many critics stood in the way of his reforms.

Feeling angry and disappointed by the lack of public support, Karageorge made a bold decision. After ruling for nine years, he gave up the crown and left the throne. Despite this, he remained an important historical figure as the founder of the Karageorgovitch dynasty, one of the two royal families that would fight for control of Servia for years to come.

The Rise of Milos Obren

The rival of Karageorge was also a man of humble beginnings. He was the son of a house servant who worked for a wealthy and powerful family named Obren. This man’s father, Tescho, had no last name—as was common among Balkan peasants. When the son grew famous, he adopted the name of the noble family his father had served, calling himself Milos Obren, founder of the Obrenovitch dynasty Understanding the Political Situation in Servia.

When Karageorge stepped down, Milos was the most powerful man left in Belgrade. A Turkish pasha soon invaded Servia and took control of the city. He made Milos the governor of the province, a position that gave him more influence and ambition.

Betrayal and a Lasting Feud

Worried that Karageorge might return to power, Milos made a treacherous decision. He betrayed Karageorge to the Turkish authorities and arranged his murder. Milos hired a killer named Vuica to assassinate Karageorge while he was sleeping in a mountain hut. This act of betrayal started the bitter and long-lasting rivalry between the two royal families: the Karageorgovitch and the Obrenovitch.

Milos Takes the Throne

Eventually, Milos became king of Servia. However, his leadership style was very different from Karageorge’s. While Karageorge had ruled with simplicity and a sense of justice, Milos ruled as an autocrat, or absolute ruler. Over time, the people became tired of his harsh rule. Public anger forced him to abdicate, and his eldest son, Milan III, became king.

Unfortunately, Milan III died just a month later, and his brother Michael then took the throne. This continued the cycle of political unrest and shifting power that marked much of Servian history.

The story of Servia’s political struggles cannot be told without understanding the feud between the Karageorgovitch and Obrenovitch families. One was founded by a national hero who valued justice and progress; the other by a cunning politician who rose through betrayal and ambition. Their rivalry shaped the future of Servia and influenced its politics for generations.

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